The climax of the fascist rise was the March on Rome in October 1922. In this decisive action, Mussolini and his followers planned to seize control of the Italian government through a show of force. Starting on October 27, thousands of fascists began to gather around Rome. The government, led by Prime Minister Luigi Facta, attempted to declare a state of siege to stop the fascists, but King Victor Emmanuel III refused to sign the decree. The king's refusal was partly due to fear that military action against the fascists could spark a civil war and partly to the belief that Mussolini could be controlled within the framework of the government.

On October 29, the king summoned Mussolini to Rome and offered to form a new government. Mussolini, who until then had remained in Milan to avoid personal risk, accepted the invitation and traveled to Rome, where he was named prime minister. This concession marked the official beginning of the fascist regime in Italy. The March on Rome became a founding myth of fascism, presenting itself as a "revolution" that had saved Italy from chaos and anarchy.

Once in power, Mussolini and the PNF began to consolidate their control over the Italian state. Through a series of reforms and political maneuvers, Mussolini eroded the foundations of the liberal parliamentary system. In 1923, the Acerbo Law was passed, which guaranteed that the party that obtained the most votes in an election would obtain two-thirds of the seats in the Chamber of Deputies. This law, combined with intimidation and electoral manipulation, allowed the fascists to secure an overwhelming majority in the 1924 elections.

The assassination of socialist leader Giacomo Matteotti in June 1924, after he denounced electoral fraud and fascist violence, sparked a political crisis. Although it initially seemed like it could threaten Mussolini's position, he used the incident to further consolidate his power. In January 1925, Mussolini gave a speech in which he took political responsibility for fascist violence and promised to restore order. From then on, a systematic campaign was launched to eliminate political opposition and establish a totalitarian dictatorship.

The fascist regime was characterized by the centralization of power in the hands of Mussolini, who adopted the title "Duce" (leader). Parliament was practically stripped of its power, and the PNF became the only permitted political force. A repressive apparatus was established that included the secret police (OVRA) and a propaganda system that promoted Mussolini's personality cult and fascist ideals. The regime also implemented a series of economic and social policies that sought autarky, industrial modernization, and mass mobilization in support of the state.

Fascism also had an imperialist dimension. Mussolini aspired to restore the power and glory of ancient Rome through territorial expansion. In 1935, Italy invaded Ethiopia, one of the few independent African nations, and annexed it as part of the Italian Empire. This aggression was condemned by the League of Nations, but had significant support in Italy as a demonstration of the country's renewed power. Mussolini's aggressive foreign policy continued with intervention in the Spanish Civil War in support of Francisco Franco and the alliance with Adolf Hitler's Nazi Germany, formalized in the 1939 Pact of Steel.

Italy's participation in World War II, however, proved disastrous. Despite initial victories in Africa and the Balkans, Italian forces suffered numerous defeats. The invasion of Greece in 1940, for example, failed miserably and required German intervention to save the situation. Campaigns in North Africa and the Mediterranean also ended in defeat, and by 1943, Allied forces began to invade Italy.

Mussolini's growing unpopularity and military defeats led to a conspiracy within the Grand Fascist Council, the party's supreme body. On July 25, 1943, Mussolini was deposed and arrested by order of King Victor Emmanuel III. A new government headed by Pietro Badoglio took power and negotiated an armistice with the Allies. However, the Germans quickly occupied northern Italy and freed Mussolini, establishing a puppet state known as the Italian Social Republic (ISR) in Salò.

The RSI was short-lived and relied heavily on German support. The Italian resistance, composed of a coalition of communists, socialists, liberals and monarchists, fought fiercely against the fascist and German forces. In April 1945, the Allied forces and the Italian resistance managed to defeat the Axis forces in Italy. Mussolini attempted to flee to Switzerland, but was captured and executed by partisans on April 28, 1945. His body was publicly hung in Milan as a symbol of the end of fascism in Italy.

The fascist revolution of 1922 and the regime it established left a deep mark on the history of Italy. Fascism transformed the political, social and economic structure of the country, and its legacy continues to be the subject of study and debate. Although the regime brought with it certain advances in infrastructure and industrial modernization, its repression, violence, and imperialist policies had devastating consequences. The fascist experience also served as a global warning about the dangers of totalitarianism and the need to defend democratic institutions.

The Revolution of the Third Reich or Nazi Germany of 1933

The rise of the Third Reich in 1933, led by Adolf Hitler, was a radical and brutal transformation of Germany that led to the establishment of a totalitarian regime known as Nazism. This process began long before 1933, with roots in the devastating consequences of the First World War and the complex political, economic and social dynamics of the Weimar Republic. The Nazi movement capitalized on resentment, nationalism and despair to consolidate its power and establish a dictatorial state that led Europe and the world to the catastrophe of World War II and the Holocaust.

Germany, after its defeat in the First World War, was plunged into a deep crisis. The Treaty of Versailles of 1919 imposed harsh conditions on the country, including the loss of territory, severe military restrictions, and enormous economic reparations. These impositions fueled a feeling of humiliation and resentment among Germans, creating a breeding ground for radical movements. The Weimar Republic, established in 1919, faced enormous challenges from its inception. Hyperinflation, mass unemployment, and internal political tensions caused many Germans to lose faith in parliamentary democracy.

In this context, Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP) found fertile ground for their extremist ideologies. Hitler, a veteran of World War I, joined the NSDAP in 1919 and quickly became its leader. His charisma, oratory skills, and ability to manipulate the fears and hopes of the population allowed him to gain considerable support. The party promoted an ultranationalism based on Aryan racial superiority, anti-Semitism, anti-communism, and the restoration of Germany as a great power.

The NSDAP quickly grew in popularity, in part thanks to its use of effective propaganda and tactics of violence and intimidation. The Brownshirts (SA), the party's militia, intimidated and attacked political opponents, creating a climate of fear and chaos that further undermined confidence in the Weimar government. Despite a failed coup attempt in 1923, known as the Munich Putsch, which resulted in Hitler's imprisonment, the Nazi movement was not dissolved. During his time in prison, Hitler wrote "Mein Kampf", a manifesto that outlined his ideas and plans for Germany, allowing him to continue spreading his ideology.

The Great Depression of 1929 further aggravated the situation in Germany. Unemployment and poverty increased dramatically, and many Germans sought radical solutions to their problems. In the elections of 1930 and 1932, the NSDAP significantly increased its representation in the Reichstag (German parliament), becoming the largest party. However, despite his growing popularity, Hitler was unable to obtain an absolute majority, leading to a series of unstable governments and fragile coalitions.

The turning point came in January 1933, when, under pressure from conservative sectors and the business elite who feared the advance of communism, President Paul von Hindenburg appointed Hitler as chancellor. The belief that they could control and manipulate Hitler from within the government turned out to be a fatal mistake. Once in power, Hitler and the Nazis moved quickly to consolidate their absolute control.

The Reichstag fire in February 1933, an event shrouded in mystery and manipulated by the Nazis, was used as a pretext to declare a state of emergency. Hitler convinced Hindenburg to sign the Reichstag Fire Decree, which suspended many civil rights and allowed the detention of political opponents without trial. Using these powers, the Nazis launched a campaign of brutal repression against communists, socialists and other dissidents.

In March 1933, Hitler secured passage of the Enabling Law, which gave him almost unlimited legislative powers for four years. This law essentially dismantled parliamentary democracy and allowed Hitler to rule by decree. With the political opposition neutralized and absolute control of the state apparatus, the Nazis proceeded to rapidly transform German society according to their totalitarian ideals.

Gleichschaltung, or "coordination", was the process by which the Nazis consolidated their power, aligning all institutions and aspects of German life with Nazi ideology. The unions were dissolved and replaced by the state-controlled German Labor Front. Youth organizations, such as the Hitler Youth, instilled Nazi ideology in young people. The press, cinema, literature and all forms of cultural expression were censored and used as propaganda tools to glorify the regime and demonize its enemies.

Anti-Semitism, a cornerstone of Nazi ideology, was institutionalized and taken to genocidal extremes. The Nuremberg Laws of 1935 deprived Jews of their civil rights and excluded them from public life. Nazi propaganda dehumanized Jews, blaming them for all the ills that afflicted Germany. This hate campaign culminated in Kristallnacht of 1938, a nationwide pogrom in which synagogues were burned, Jewish businesses looted, and thousands of Jews arrested and killed.

In the economic sphere, the Nazi regime implemented policies that sought to reduce unemployment and reactivate the economy through infrastructure projects, rearmament, and military expansion. These policies were successful in reducing unemployment and restoring a degree of economic stability, which increased popular support for the regime. However, this success was achieved at the cost of preparing for war and by exploiting the resources and labor of later occupied countries.

Nazi foreign policy, guided by the idea of ​​Lebensraum (living space), sought to expand German territory in Eastern Europe, at the expense of Poland and the Soviet Union. Hitler began to openly defy the restrictions of the Treaty of Versailles, rearming Germany and occupying the demilitarized region of the Rhineland in 1936. The Western powers, following a policy of appeasement, took no firm steps to stop these violations, which encouraged Hitler to advance. with their expansionist plans.

The annexation of Austria (Anschluss) in 1938 and the occupation of the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia later that year were significant steps towards war. The invasion of Poland in September 1939, which marked the beginning of World War II, was a direct result of Nazi expansionist ambitions. The war was initially successful for Germany, with quick victories and the occupation of much of Europe.

However, the invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, Operation Barbarossa, and the entry of the United States into the war after the attack on Pearl Harbor, marked the beginning of the end for the Third Reich. The war on multiple fronts, combined with the fierce resistance of the Soviets and the growing industrial and military power of the Allies, led to German defeat.

During the war, the crimes of the Nazi regime reached their peak with the implementation of the Final Solution, the plan for the systematic extermination of Europe's Jews. Extermination camps such as Auschwitz, Treblinka and Sobibor became symbols of Nazi barbarism, where millions of Jews, along with gypsies, Soviet prisoners of war, the disabled and other groups considered "undesirable", were murdered in gas chambers and by other atrocious methods.

The war ended in Europe in May 1945 with Germany's unconditional surrender. Hitler, facing imminent defeat, committed suicide in his bunker in Berlin on April 30, 1945. The fall of the Third Reich left Germany devastated and divided, and the entire world witnessed the horror and destruction caused by the Nazi regime.

The Nazi revolution of 1933 and Hitler's subsequent dictatorship had a lasting impact on world history. Nazism not only led to the destruction of millions of lives through war and genocide, but also left an indelible mark on human consciousness about the dangers of totalitarianism, racism and intolerance. The Nuremberg Trial, held to try top Nazi leaders for war crimes and crimes against humanity, established important precedents for international justice and the recognition of human rights.

The memory of the Holocaust and the lessons of World War II continue to be fundamental in the fight against hatred and violence in the contemporary world. The story of the rise of the Third Reich serves as a constant reminder of the fragility of democracy and the need for constant vigilance to protect it against the forces of tyranny and fanaticism.

The National Movement or Franco Dictatorship of 1936

The National Movement, or the dictatorship of Francisco Franco in Spain, which was established in 1936 and lasted until the dictator's death in 1975, was a crucial and dark period in 20th century Spanish history. This authoritarian regime was established after the victory of the rebels in the Spanish Civil War, a devastating conflict that pitted republicans and nationalists from 1936 to 1939. Franco's dictatorship was characterized by political repression, extreme nationalism, social conservatism and an initially self-sufficient economy that, over time, opened to the outside world under strong state tutelage.

The Spanish Civil War was the result of years of social, political and economic tensions. The Second Republic, established in 1931, attempted to implement a series of progressive reforms that included land redistribution, the separation of Church and State, and the improvement of labor rights. These reforms, however, faced strong resistance from conservative sectors, including landowners, the military, and the Catholic Church. The growing polarization led to violent clashes and political instability that culminated in the coup d'état of July 1936.

The coup, led by a faction of the armed forces under the command of generals such as Francisco Franco, Emilio Mola and José Sanjurjo, failed to immediately take control of the entire country, leading to a civil war. The rebels, who called themselves "nationals", received support from Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, while the Republic was supported by the Soviet Union and the International Brigades, although less consistently and effectively. For three years, Spain was the scene of a fierce and brutal struggle that left hundreds of thousands dead and a country devastated.

Francisco Franco emerged as the undisputed leader of the nationalist side after the death of Sanjurjo and the murder of Mola. In 1939, after the fall of Madrid and the surrender of the last republican forces, Franco declared victory and began the arduous task of rebuilding Spain under an authoritarian and centralized regime. Franco's regime called itself "The National Movement", an amalgam of various conservative factions, including Falangists, monarchists and Catholic nationalists, united under the figure of the Caudillo.

Franco's regime was characterized by its fierce repression of any political opposition. Thousands of republicans, socialists, communists and other dissidents were imprisoned, executed or forced into exile. Censorship was omnipresent, and any form of dissent was quickly silenced. Summary executions and military trials were common, and tens of thousands of people are estimated to have died in the postwar period at the hands of the regime. The repression was not limited to the defeated of the war, but also affected intellectuals, artists and anyone suspected of not being sufficiently loyal to the new order.

The dictatorship was based on an extreme nationalist ideology that exalted the virtues of "eternal Spain", united under a single language, religion and culture. The regime promoted a monolithic vision of Spanish identity, suppressing regional cultures and languages ​​such as Catalan, Basque and Galician. The Catholic Church played a central role in public life, and Francoism presented itself as a bulwark of Christianity against communism and secular modernity.

Economically, the regime initially adopted an autarkic policy, attempting to make Spain self-sufficient and closed to outside influence. This policy, however, led to a long decade of economic stagnation, rationing, and poverty. It was not until the 1950s, with the gradual opening of the economy under the Stabilization Plan of 1959, that Spain began to experience significant economic growth. This period, known as the "Spanish economic miracle", saw the modernization of industry, the expansion of tourism and the improvement of living standards, although the benefits of growth were not equally distributed.

Franco's foreign policy was astute and pragmatic. During World War II, although he sympathized with the Axis Powers, Franco kept Spain officially neutral, thus avoiding the disaster of an Allied occupation or invasion. After the war, and despite initial isolation due to international condemnation for his association with fascism, Franco knew how to take advantage of the Cold War. In a context of global struggle against communism, Spain became a strategic ally for the United States and its Western allies. In 1953, Franco signed an agreement with the United States that allowed the installation of American military bases in Spain in exchange for economic and military aid, marking the end of international isolation.

Socially, the dictatorship maintained rigid control over the daily lives of Spaniards. Civil liberties were limited, and the regime promoted traditional and conservative values. Women, for example, were relegated to traditional roles of mother and wife, and access to divorce and other female rights were restricted. Education was a key tool for indoctrination, and the Catholic Church had significant influence on the education system, ensuring that young people were educated in the values ​​of the regime.

Despite repression and authoritarian control, opposition to Francoism never completely disappeared. In exile, the Republicans continued to organize and keep alive the hope of a free Spain. Within the country, various forms of resistance, from labor strikes to clandestine activities by political parties and student groups, persisted over the decades. In particular, the 1960s saw a rise in opposition activity, influenced by civil rights movements and student protests around the world.

Franco's health began to deteriorate in the 1960s, and the question of succession became increasingly pressing. Franco had designated Prince Juan Carlos de Borbón as his successor in 1969, a move that was viewed with skepticism by both hardline Franco supporters and opponents of the regime. However, Juan Carlos promised to continue the legacy of Francoism, although his true intentions were kept secret.

On November 20, 1975, Francisco Franco died, marking the end of his dictatorship. The transition to democracy was neither immediate nor easy, but under the leadership of Juan Carlos I and the new Prime Minister Adolfo Suárez, Spain began to move towards a democratic system. The Political Reform Law of 1976 and the first democratic elections in 1977 were crucial steps in the transition. In 1978, Spain adopted a new Constitution that established a democratic and decentralized rule of law, formally ending Franco's regime.

The legacy of Franco's dictatorship is complex and controversial. On the one hand, the period is marked by brutal repression, the lack of freedoms and the suffering of millions of Spaniards. On the other hand, the economic growth of the last decades of Franco's regime left an industrial and tourist infrastructure that benefited the Spanish economy in the long term. The historical memory of Francoism remains a divisive issue in Spain, with ongoing debates about how to reconcile the past and honor the victims of the dictatorship.

The Vichy French Revolution of 1940

The Vichy French Revolution of 1940 marks a dark and complex chapter in French history during World War II. Following France's rapid defeat by German forces in 1940, the French government was forced to sign an armistice with Germany, leading to the establishment of a collaborationist regime known as the Vichy regime, led by Marshal Philippe Pétain. This period was marked by submission to the German occupier, internal repression and collaboration with the Nazi regime, as well as clandestine resistance and the fight to keep alive the hope of a free France.

The fall of France to the German Blitzkrieg in May and June 1940 was a devastating blow to the country, which had been considered one of Europe's leading military powers. The rapid mobility and tactical superiority of the German forces, combined with French surprise and lack of preparation, led to a humiliating defeat and the occupation of much of the country. On June 22, 1940, the French government, under Prime Minister Philippe Pétain, signed an armistice with Germany in a clear act of surrender.

The armistice divided France into two zones: one occupied by the German army, which included most of the north and west of the country, and a "free" zone in the southeast, which included the capital, Paris, and much of the Mediterranean territory. However, in reality, the free zone was under the indirect control of the Vichy regime, which, although officially an autonomous French government, acted in close collaboration with the German occupiers.

The leader of this regime was the elderly Marshal Philippe Pétain, a World War I hero who had gained great popularity for his role in the Battle of Verdun. Pétain, in a radio speech, justified the armistice as an act of "national salvation" aimed at avoiding the total destruction of France and preserving "unity and order" in the country. However, his rule quickly became an instrument of German occupation policy and an authoritarian regime that restricted civil liberties and persecuted political opponents.

The Vichy regime collaborated closely with the German authorities in repressing resistance and implementing the anti-Semitic policies of the Third Reich. Under the leadership of Pétain and his collaborators, discriminatory laws were enacted against Jews, internment camps were established, and mass deportations of French Jews to Nazi concentration camps were carried out. The French police, together with the German authorities, participated in the detention and deportation of thousands of Jews, thus contributing to one of the darkest pages of French history during the war.

Collaboration with the Nazi regime was not limited to the persecution of Jews. The Vichy government also cooperated in providing French labor to work in the German war industry, in confiscating Jewish property, and in suppressing any form of resistance. However, despite official collaboration, there were sectors of French society that actively resisted the Vichy regime and the German occupation.