The independence of Latin America was not a uniform process nor free of internal conflicts. In many cases, fighting continued after the expulsion of royalist forces, as new states faced challenges in consolidating their sovereignty and establishing stable systems of government. Tensions between different factions, regional rivalries, and economic and social challenges posed significant obstacles to building unified and prosperous nations.

The legacy of the Spanish American revolution is complex and multifaceted. On the one hand, he managed to free vast territories from colonial rule and laid the foundations for the creation of independent republics in Latin America. On the other hand, the independence processes also gave rise to new conflicts and challenges, including civil wars, dictatorships and struggles for the equitable distribution of land and resources. However, the independence movement also left a lasting legacy of aspiration towards the ideals of freedom, justice and self-determination that remain relevant in the region.

Simón Bolívar, known as the Liberator, is perhaps the most emblematic figure of Latin American independence. His vision of a united Latin America and his leadership in the liberation of several countries made him a symbol of the fight for independence and unity. Although his dream of a Greater Colombia—a federation of liberated republics—did not materialize, his legacy endures in the historical memory and identity of the Latin American peoples.

The May Revolution of 1810 in Argentina

The May Revolution of 1810 in Argentina is one of the most significant events in the history of Latin America, marking the beginning of the process of independence from Spanish rule. This revolutionary movement was the result of a complex combination of political, economic and social factors both locally and globally. To understand the May Revolution, it is necessary to examine the context of the colony of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, the events in Europe, the internal tensions and the key figures who participated in this historical process.

At the end of the 18th century and beginning of the 19th century, the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, created in 1776, covered what is now Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay and Uruguay. The region's economy was based primarily on agriculture and livestock, with Buenos Aires emerging as an important commercial port due to its access to the Atlantic and its role in the silver trade. However, the trade restrictions imposed by the Spanish crown, which forced the colonies to trade exclusively with Spain, generated growing discontent among the Creoles, who were descendants of Spaniards born in America. These Creoles aspired to greater control over their economy and local policies.

The international context also played a crucial role in the development of the May Revolution. The French Revolution of 1789, with its ideals of liberty, equality and fraternity, inspired independence movements around the world. The independence of the United States in 1776 also served as a model for Creole leaders. However, the most decisive event was the Napoleonic invasion of Spain in 1808, which led to the abdication of King Charles IV and his son Ferdinand VII, and the imposition of Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother, as king of Spain. . This generated a crisis of legitimacy in the Spanish empire, since many in the colonies did not recognize Joseph Bonaparte as their sovereign.

In response to the French invasion, government boards were formed in Spain to resist the invaders and defend the rights of Ferdinand VII. This situation created a power vacuum that extended to the colonies, where the Creoles began to question the authority of the viceroys and other officials appointed by the crown. In Buenos Aires, Viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros attempted to maintain control amid growing discontent. The situation became unsustainable when it became evident that communications with Spain were increasingly difficult and that military and economic support from the metropolis was in decline.

The revolutionary process accelerated in 1809 when several attempts to establish government boards in Upper Peru (now Bolivia) and in Chuquisaca (now Sucre) failed. These movements were quickly repressed, but showed that there was a growing desire for change. In Buenos Aires, a group of Creoles began to organize secretly, inspired by the ideas of the Enlightenment and revolutionary events in other parts of the world. This group included key figures such as Cornelio Saavedra, president of the Buenos Aires Cabildo; Juan José Castelli, a lawyer and eloquent speaker; and Mariano Moreno, a lawyer and journalist passionate about liberal ideas.

On May 25, 1810, after several days of tense meetings and debates in the Open Town Hall, the May Revolution took place. In this Council, it was decided to dismiss Viceroy Cisneros and form a governing board. This board, known as the First Board, was chaired by Cornelio Saavedra and composed of other Creole leaders such as Castelli and Moreno. The formation of the First Junta was a revolutionary act that challenged Spanish authority and marked the beginning of a process that would lead to the independence of Argentina and, eventually, other parts of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata.

The First Junta quickly took steps to consolidate its power and gain support. One of his first actions was to send emissaries to the provinces to obtain their adherence to the new authority. This effort was not easy, as there was strong resistance from authorities loyal to Spain, especially in the inland cities and in Upper Peru. The junta also faced opposition from conservative sectors and those who feared that the revolutionary movement could destabilize the region.

To strengthen its position, the First Junta organized military expeditions to ensure control over the provinces and confront the royalist forces. The Expedition to Paraguay, led by Manuel Belgrano, was one of the first efforts in this regard. Although the campaign failed to annex Paraguay, it was successful in spreading revolutionary ideas. In Upper Peru, the situation was more complicated. The royalist forces were strong and well organized, leading to a series of bloody clashes that would continue for several years.

The junta also promoted political and social reforms to gain the support of the population. Mariano Moreno, one of the most radical leaders, promoted freedom of the press and the creation of a "Gazeta de Buenos Aires" to spread revolutionary ideas and counteract royalist propaganda. Moreno also advocated for the abolition of the mita and other forms of forced labor that affected indigenous people, although these measures were not always implemented effectively.

The First Junta faced numerous challenges, both internal and external. Internally, there were conflicts and divisions among board members over the direction and policies to follow. Some, like Saavedra, were more moderate and cautious, while others, like Moreno, were more radical and wanted to move quickly toward independence and the implementation of deep reforms. These differences led to tensions and confrontations within the revolutionary government.

Externally, the junta had to deal with pressure from royalist forces and intervention from foreign powers. The arrival of news of Ferdinand VII's restoration to the Spanish throne in 1814 further complicated the situation, as many expected the monarch to attempt to regain control over the rebellious colonies. However, the distance and the economic and political situation in Spain made the reconquest difficult.

Despite these challenges, the May Revolution laid the foundations for the independence of Argentina and other territories of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. In 1813, the Assembly of the Year XIII declared freedom of wombs, abolished noble titles and adopted a series of progressive reforms. Although independence was not formally proclaimed, these measures reflected a clear desire to break with the colonial past and build a new society based on the principles of freedom and equality.

The independence process culminated on July 9, 1816, when the Congress of Tucumán declared the independence of the United Provinces in South America. This act formalized the separation from Spain and established a new legal and political framework for the nascent nation. Independence, however, did not mean the end of conflicts. Civil wars and internal disputes continued for several years, as different factions fought for control and direction of the country.

Among the prominent leaders at this stage were José de San Martín and Manuel Belgrano. San Martín, in particular, played a crucial role in the liberation of Chile and Peru, organizing and leading the Army of the Andes in one of the most daring military campaigns in history. Belgrano, for his part, continued to fight for independence and social reforms until his death in 1820. His efforts and sacrifices were fundamental to ensuring the freedom and sovereignty of Argentina and other South American nations.

The May Revolution of 1810 left a lasting legacy in the history of Argentina and Latin America. It marked the beginning of a process of emancipation that transformed the political and social landscape of the region. The fight for independence inspired future generations to continue the search for freedom, justice and democracy. Although the road to building a unified and prosperous nation was full of challenges and conflicts, the ideals of the May Revolution remain a source of inspiration and pride for Argentines.

In the cultural and symbolic sphere, the May Revolution has been commemorated and celebrated in various ways throughout the history of Argentina. May 25 is celebrated as May Revolution Day, a national holiday that remembers the events of 1810 and the fight for independence. Monuments, streets and squares bear the names of the heroes and events of the revolution, and their legacy remains alive in the country's collective memory.

The Eastern Revolution of 1811

The Eastern Revolution of 1811, which marked the beginning of Uruguay's independence process, is an essential part of Latin American history and reflects the complex political and social dynamics of the time. This revolutionary movement, led by figures such as José Gervasio Artigas, was driven by a mix of local and external factors, including discontent with Spanish colonial rule, the influence of revolutionary ideas circulating in the Atlantic world, and events elsewhere. from Latin America and Europe. The Eastern Revolution not only sought the emancipation of the Banda Oriental from Spanish control, but was also inserted into the broader context of the South American wars of independence.

At the beginning of the 19th century, the Banda Oriental, which corresponds to the territory of present-day Uruguay, was part of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, with its capital in Buenos Aires. The region had an economy based on livestock and the trade of products such as leather and salted meat, and was inhabited by a mix of Creoles, indigenous people, Africans and mestizos. The criollos, descendants of Spaniards born in America, occupied an important social position but were excluded from the main positions of power, reserved for peninsulares, that is, Spaniards born in the Iberian Peninsula. This exclusion generated growing discontent among the Creoles, who saw with frustration how their interests were subordinated to those of the metropolis.

The international context also played a crucial role in the development of the Eastern Revolution. The Napoleonic invasion of Spain in 1808 and the consequent abdication of King Charles IV and that of his son Ferdinand VII caused a crisis of legitimacy in the Spanish empire. The imposition of Joseph Bonaparte as king of Spain was rejected by many on the peninsula and in the colonies, where government boards were formed in the name of the captive Ferdinand VII. In Latin America, this power vacuum offered an opportunity for Creole leaders to begin organizing and demanding greater autonomy, and even independence.

In Buenos Aires, the May Revolution of 1810 marked the beginning of a revolutionary process that sought independence from Spanish rule. The formation of the First Junta in Buenos Aires was a significant event that resonated throughout the Río de la Plata region. In the Banda Oriental, this news generated enthusiasm and hope among Creoles who aspired to profound changes in the power structure and greater opportunities to participate in the political and economic life of the region.

One of the most important leaders of the Eastern Revolution was José Gervasio Artigas, a Creole soldier and politician who would become an emblematic figure of the Uruguayan independence movement. Born in Montevideo in 1764, Artigas had extensive experience in rural life and a deep understanding of the needs and aspirations of the inhabitants of the Banda Oriental. His ideas were influenced by the principles of the Enlightenment and examples of the Atlantic revolutions, such as the American Revolution and the French Revolution.

The spark that triggered the Eastern Revolution was the insurrection of 1811. In February of that year, Artigas abandoned his position in the Spanish army and joined the revolutionaries. Together with a group of Creoles and local inhabitants, he began to organize resistance against Spanish rule. On February 28, 1811, the Grito de Asencio took place, an armed uprising that marked the beginning of the fight for independence in the Banda Oriental. This event was followed by a series of clashes and military actions that sought to expel the Spanish authorities from the region.

One of the key moments of the Eastern Revolution was the siege of Montevideo, the capital of the Banda Oriental, which was under the control of royalist forces. Artigas and his followers, known as the "Orientales", established a siege around the city with the aim of weakening the defenders and forcing them to surrender. This siege, which lasted several years, was an example of the determination and resistance of the revolutionaries. Although they did not manage to take the city immediately, the siege of Montevideo was a symbol of the fight for independence and autonomy.

The support of Buenos Aires was crucial in the first years of the Eastern Revolution. The Junta of Buenos Aires, interested in weakening the Spanish position in the Río de la Plata, sent troops and resources to support the revolutionaries in the Banda Oriental. However, relations between the leaders of Buenos Aires and Artigas were not always easy. Artigas had a vision of a federation of autonomous provinces, while many in Buenos Aires favored centralized control. These differences led to tensions and conflicts that complicated the fight for independence.

In 1813, Artigas convened the Congress of Tres Cruces, where he presented the Instructions of the Year XIII, a document that outlined his vision for a future confederation of free and autonomous provinces. The Instructions of the Year XIII proposed, among other things, absolute independence from Spain, the equality of the provinces and the equitable distribution of land. This document is considered one of the first manifestos of federalism in Latin America and reflects the depth of Artigas' revolutionary ideas.

Despite the efforts of the revolutionaries, the fight for independence was neither easy nor quick. Royalist forces continued to put up strong resistance, and the region became embroiled in a protracted and bloody conflict. In addition to Spanish opposition, the revolutionaries had to face the intervention of other foreign powers. Portugal, which controlled Brazil, intervened on several occasions in the Banda Oriental, seeing the instability as an opportunity to expand its influence in the region.

In 1815, Artigas and his followers achieved a series of significant victories that allowed them to consolidate their control over much of the Banda Oriental. Artigas established his headquarters in Purificación, from where he organized the administration of the territory and promoted a series of social and economic reforms. During this period, known as the Federal League, Artigas implemented progressive policies such as distributing land to peasants and encouraging agricultural production.

However, internal divisions and external pressures continued to affect the stability of the region. The rivalry with Buenos Aires intensified, and Portuguese intervention from Brazil became an increasingly serious threat. In 1816, Portuguese forces invaded the Banda Oriental and, despite the resistance of Artigas' followers, managed to occupy much of the territory. Artigas was forced to withdraw and continue the fight from exile in Paraguay.

Despite the setbacks, the Eastern Revolution left a lasting legacy. The fight for independence and autonomy continued, and in 1825, a new revolutionary movement led by Juan Antonio Lavalleja and the Thirty-Three Orientales managed to expel the Brazilian forces and proclaim the independence of the Banda Oriental. This event culminated in the creation of the Eastern State of Uruguay in 1828, after the diplomatic intervention of Great Britain and the signing of the Treaty of Montevideo.

Uruguay's independence process was long and complex, marked by numerous conflicts and challenges. The figure of José Gervasio Artigas stands as a symbol of resistance and the fight for autonomy and social justice. Although he did not live to see the independence of his homeland, his legacy lived on in the ideas and principles that inspired future generations.

The Eastern Revolution of 1811 also had a significant impact in the broader context of the South American wars of independence. The struggle in the Banda Oriental was part of a broader movement that transformed the political map of Latin America. The ideas of freedom, equality and self-determination that motivated the Uruguayan revolutionaries resonated throughout the region and contributed to the formation of new independent nations.

The Revolution of the LIberal Triennium of 1820

The Liberal Triennium Revolution of 1820 in Spain was a crucial period in the country's history, marked by the struggle between supporters of monarchical absolutism represented by King Ferdinand VII and defenders of liberal and constitutional ideas. This revolutionary movement, which lasted from 1820 to 1823, was driven by a series of political, social and economic factors, and had a significant impact on the configuration of the Spanish political system in the 19th century.

To understand the Revolution of the Liberal Triennium, it is important to examine the historical context in which it developed. At the beginning of the 19th century, Spain was plunged into a deep political, economic and social crisis. The Napoleonic invasion of 1808 and the forced abdication of King Charles IV and his son Ferdinand VII left the country in a situation of chaos and confusion. The war of independence against France and the popular resistance that broke out across the country generated patriotic fervor and a sense of unity among Spaniards, but also exposed the deep political and social divisions in Spanish society.

After the withdrawal of French troops in 1814, Ferdinand VII returned to the Spanish throne and reestablished monarchical absolutism. His return to power was greeted with hope by some sectors, who hoped he would restore order and stability in the country. However, it soon became apparent that Ferdinand VII was more interested in consolidating his own power and eliminating any form of political opposition. Under his reign, the old absolutist regime was restored and civil liberties and rights were repressed.

The reign of Ferdinand VII was marked by political repression and the persecution of any form of dissent. A system of political and social control was established based on the systematic use of fear and violence to quell any hint of opposition. The liberals, who advocated the adoption of a constitution that would limit the power of the king and guarantee individual rights, were particularly persecuted and repressed. Many were imprisoned, exiled or executed for their participation in political activities considered subversive by the absolutist regime.

The political situation in Spain began to change in the early 1820s. In March 1820, a military uprising in Cádiz, known as the Riego Pronunciation, marked the beginning of the Revolution of the Liberal Triennium. Lieutenant Colonel Rafael del Riego led a military movement demanding the restoration of the Constitution of 1812, which had been promulgated during the brief period of constitutional government between 1812 and 1814. The Constitution of 1812, also known as the "Constitution of Cádiz" , established a political system based on the principles of liberalism and the separation of powers, and had been abolished by Ferdinand VII after his return to the throne.

Riego's uprising was quickly supported by other sectors of Spanish society who longed for political change and the restoration of civil liberties. Throughout the country, local boards and committees were formed that declared their support for the liberal movement and demanded the convening of a new constitutional government. News of the pronouncement spread quickly throughout Spain, fanning the flames of rebellion and generating a wave of enthusiasm among liberals and the popular sectors.

The government of Ferdinand VII was forced to give in to popular and military pressure and accept the rebels' demands. In March 1820, the king was forced to swear fidelity to the Constitution of 1812 and accept the formation of a provisional government made up of moderate liberals and soldiers related to the movement. This political change marked the beginning of the Liberal Triennium, a period of relative political openness and constitutional reform in Spain.

The provisional government established a series of measures aimed at institutionalizing liberal principles and guaranteeing civil rights and liberties. Elections were called to elect a new parliament, laws were enacted to guarantee freedom of the press and association, and economic reforms were initiated aimed at modernizing the Spanish economy and promoting industrial and commercial development. In addition, a process of political decentralization began that granted a greater degree of autonomy to the provinces and municipalities.

The Liberal Triennium was also a period of cultural and political effervescence in Spain. Numerous literary and scientific societies were established that promoted the exchange of ideas and intellectual debate. Liberal newspapers and magazines proliferated, spreading the ideas of liberalism and democracy among the Spanish population. Culture and the arts flourished during this period, with the emergence of important literary and artistic figures who challenged established conventions and explored new forms of expression.

However, the Liberal Triennium was also marked by political instability and social unrest. The liberal reforms provoked opposition from conservative and reactionary sectors of Spanish society, including some members of the clergy and nobility. Furthermore, increasing political polarization and rivalry between liberal factions led to internal conflicts that weakened the government's authority and made it difficult to implement coherent policies.

The situation was further complicated by foreign intervention in Spanish affairs. In 1822, France led a coalition of European powers that intervened in Spain under the pretext of restoring order and protecting the interests of the absolute monarchy. The French intervention, known as the "Invasion of the Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis", was led by the Duke of Angoulême, nephew of the French King Louis XVIII, and was supported by Austria and other European powers.