To understand the Revolution of the Liberal Triennium, it is important to examine the historical context in which it developed. At the beginning of the 19th century, Spain was plunged into a deep political, economic and social crisis. The Napoleonic invasion of 1808 and the forced abdication of King Charles IV and his son Ferdinand VII left the country in a situation of chaos and confusion. The war of independence against France and the popular resistance that broke out across the country generated patriotic fervor and a sense of unity among Spaniards, but also exposed the deep political and social divisions in Spanish society.
After the withdrawal of French troops in 1814, Ferdinand VII returned to the Spanish throne and reestablished monarchical absolutism. His return to power was greeted with hope by some sectors, who hoped he would restore order and stability in the country. However, it soon became apparent that Ferdinand VII was more interested in consolidating his own power and eliminating any form of political opposition. Under his reign, the old absolutist regime was restored and civil liberties and rights were repressed.
The reign of Ferdinand VII was marked by political repression and the persecution of any form of dissent. A system of political and social control was established based on the systematic use of fear and violence to quell any hint of opposition. The liberals, who advocated the adoption of a constitution that would limit the power of the king and guarantee individual rights, were particularly persecuted and repressed. Many were imprisoned, exiled or executed for their participation in political activities considered subversive by the absolutist regime.
The political situation in Spain began to change in the early 1820s. In March 1820, a military uprising in Cádiz, known as the Riego Pronunciation, marked the beginning of the Revolution of the Liberal Triennium. Lieutenant Colonel Rafael del Riego led a military movement demanding the restoration of the Constitution of 1812, which had been promulgated during the brief period of constitutional government between 1812 and 1814. The Constitution of 1812, also known as the "Constitution of Cádiz" , established a political system based on the principles of liberalism and the separation of powers, and had been abolished by Ferdinand VII after his return to the throne.
Riego's uprising was quickly supported by other sectors of Spanish society who longed for political change and the restoration of civil liberties. Throughout the country, local boards and committees were formed that declared their support for the liberal movement and demanded the convening of a new constitutional government. News of the pronouncement spread quickly throughout Spain, fanning the flames of rebellion and generating a wave of enthusiasm among liberals and the popular sectors.
The government of Ferdinand VII was forced to give in to popular and military pressure and accept the rebels' demands. In March 1820, the king was forced to swear fidelity to the Constitution of 1812 and accept the formation of a provisional government made up of moderate liberals and soldiers related to the movement. This political change marked the beginning of the Liberal Triennium, a period of relative political openness and constitutional reform in Spain.
The provisional government established a series of measures aimed at institutionalizing liberal principles and guaranteeing civil rights and liberties. Elections were called to elect a new parliament, laws were enacted to guarantee freedom of the press and association, and economic reforms were initiated aimed at modernizing the Spanish economy and promoting industrial and commercial development. In addition, a process of political decentralization began that granted a greater degree of autonomy to the provinces and municipalities.
The Liberal Triennium was also a period of cultural and political effervescence in Spain. Numerous literary and scientific societies were established that promoted the exchange of ideas and intellectual debate. Liberal newspapers and magazines proliferated, spreading the ideas of liberalism and democracy among the Spanish population. Culture and the arts flourished during this period, with the emergence of important literary and artistic figures who challenged established conventions and explored new forms of expression.
However, the Liberal Triennium was also marked by political instability and social unrest. The liberal reforms provoked opposition from conservative and reactionary sectors of Spanish society, including some members of the clergy and nobility. Furthermore, increasing political polarization and rivalry between liberal factions led to internal conflicts that weakened the government's authority and made it difficult to implement coherent policies.
The situation was further complicated by foreign intervention in Spanish affairs. In 1822, France led a coalition of European powers that intervened in Spain under the pretext of restoring order and protecting the interests of the absolute monarchy. The French intervention, known as the "Invasion of the Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis", was led by the Duke of Angoulême, nephew of the French King Louis XVIII, and was supported by Austria and other European powers.
The Porto Revolution of 1820
The Porto Revolution of 1820 was a crucial event in the history of Portugal that marked the beginning of the country's independence process from the rule of the absolutist Spanish crown. This revolutionary movement, which took place in a context of profound political and social upheaval in Europe following the fall of Napoleon Bonaparte, was driven by a combination of internal and external factors and led to the restoration of liberalism in Portugal.
At the beginning of the 19th century, Portugal was under the rule of the Braganza dynasty, which had ruled the country since the mid-17th century. However, throughout the 18th and early 19th centuries, the country experienced political, economic and military decline, losing much of its colonial empire and being invaded by Napoleonic troops in 1807. The Portuguese royal family fled to Brazil, then Portuguese colony, while Portugal remained under French control for several years.
The presence of French troops in Portugal during the Napoleonic occupation had a profound impact on Portuguese society and politics. The French invasion exacerbated existing social and economic tensions, and caused a deep crisis in the structure of the Portuguese State. Furthermore, the French occupation aroused nationalist feelings among the Portuguese population and generated a strong desire to restore the country's independence and sovereignty.
Portuguese resistance against French occupation culminated in the Peninsular War (1808-1814), in which Portuguese forces, along with British, Spanish, and other troops, fought against the Napoleonic army on the Iberian Peninsula. The war ended with the withdrawal of French troops from Portugal and the restoration of Portuguese government under Prince Regent John VI, who had remained in Brazil during the French occupation.
However, the return of John VI to the Portuguese throne did not resolve the deep political and economic problems that affected the country. The absolutist monarchy, which had been restored with the return of the prince regent, maintained an authoritarian and centralized political system that limited the civil rights and freedoms of the population. Furthermore, Portugal was facing an economic and financial crisis, exacerbated by the loss of its colonies and dependence on trade with Brazil.
In this context of political and social crisis, the Porto Revolution of 1820 emerged as a movement that sought to restore liberalism in Portugal and guarantee the country's independence and sovereignty. The revolution had its origins in the city of Porto, an important economic and commercial center in northern Portugal, where social and political tensions were particularly intense.
The trigger for the Porto Revolution was the military insurrection led by General Gomes Freire de Andrade on August 24, 1820. Freire de Andrade, who was an officer in the Portuguese army and a prominent liberal, organized an armed uprising in Porto with the objective of overthrowing the absolutist government and restoring liberalism in the country. The insurrection was quickly supported by other sectors of Portuguese society, including merchants, landowners and members of the clergy, who supported demands for reform and political change.
The revolutionary movement in Porto quickly spread throughout the country, gaining support in other cities and regions of Portugal. The rebels formed local boards and committees that declared their loyalty to the principles of liberalism and demanded the convocation of a new constitutional government. The revolution became a popular movement that attracted people from all walks of Portuguese life, united in their desire to free themselves from the yoke of absolutism and restore democracy and freedom to the country.
The Portuguese government, led by Prince Regent John VI and his court, was forced to respond to the demands of the revolutionaries and accept the call for a new constitutional government. In October 1820, the Prince Regent swore allegiance to the Constitution and appointed a provisional government composed of liberal and moderate leaders who were committed to the restoration of liberalism in Portugal.
The convocation of Constituent Cortes in 1821 marked an important milestone in the revolutionary process. The Cortes, which were made up of representatives from across the country, were tasked with drafting a new constitution that would guarantee the rights and freedoms of citizens and limit the power of the monarch. The drafting of the Constitution was a long and complex process, in which different proposals and amendments were debated and discussed.
The Constitution of 1822, also known as the "Porto Constitution", was finally promulgated by the Constituent Cortes and established a political system based on the principles of liberalism and the separation of powers. The Constitution guaranteed fundamental rights such as freedom of expression, freedom of the press and freedom of association, and established a bicameral parliament composed of a Chamber of Deputies and a Senate.
The Greek Revolution of 1821
The Greek Revolution of 1821, also known as the Greek War of Independence, was an important event in the history of Greece that marked the beginning of the Greek people's struggle for independence from Ottoman rule. This revolutionary movement, which broke out in a context of political and social upheaval in Europe and the Balkans, was driven by a combination of internal and external factors and led to the creation of the modern Greek state.
To understand the Greek Revolution of 1821, it is necessary to examine the historical context in which it developed. In the 18th and early 19th centuries, Greece was under the rule of the Ottoman Empire, which had conquered the region in the 15th century and established a system of government based on the power of local feudal lords known as beys and the payment of taxes. to the Sublime Gate in Istanbul. Under Ottoman rule, Greeks faced religious, cultural and political discrimination, and were denied basic rights and freedoms.
The Enlightenment and nationalist movements that emerged in Europe in the 18th century had a profound impact on Greek consciousness and awakened a sense of national identity among the Greek people. The idea of freedom and equality, as well as the desire for self-government, began to gain ground among Greek intellectuals and leaders, who sought to free their country from the Ottoman yoke and restore the glory of ancient Greece.
In this context, the first signs of resistance against Ottoman rule in Greece emerged. Local resistance movements, known as klephts and armatoloi, emerged in the mountains of Greece and carried out guerrilla attacks against the Ottoman authorities and their local collaborators. These groups, composed mainly of peasants and shepherds, became symbols of Greek resistance and a source of inspiration for future generations of patriots.
Widespread discontent with Ottoman rule intensified in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, as oppression and economic exploitation of the Greek population increased. Oppressive taxation, forced conscription into the Ottoman army, and religious and cultural discrimination fueled resentment and indignation among Greeks, who began to seek more organized forms of resistance against Ottoman rule.
The outbreak of the Greek Revolution of 1821 was preceded by a series of events that increased tensions between the Greeks and the Ottoman authorities. In 1814, Greek leaders presented a petition to the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II, known as the September Memorandum, in which they demanded a series of political, economic and social reforms to improve the situation of Greeks in the empire. However, the request was rejected by the sultan, who refused to give in to the demands of the Greeks.
The sultan's refusal to grant the reforms requested by the Greeks led to an increase in political unrest and preparation for insurrection. Greek leaders, inspired by the ideas of the Enlightenment and European nationalist movements, began planning a revolt against Ottoman rule and the creation of an independent Greek state. Among the prominent leaders of the revolution were figures such as Theodoros Kolokotronis, Alexandros Ypsilantis, Laskarina Bouboulina and other Greek patriots who fervently embraced the cause of independence.
The outbreak of the Greek Revolution occurred on March 25, 1821, when Greek patriots in the southern Peloponnese city of Kalamata took up arms against the Ottoman authorities and proclaimed the independence of Greece. The uprising in Kalamata was followed by a series of rebellions throughout the country, with groups of guerrillas and rebels attacking Ottoman garrisons, fortresses and settlements throughout Greece.
News of the outbreak of the revolution spread quickly throughout Greece and sparked patriotic fervor among the Greek population. Thousands of Greeks, men and women, young and old, joined the fight for independence, abandoning their homes and jobs to join the ranks of the rebels. The revolution attracted support from a wide range of sectors of Greek society, including peasants, merchants, intellectuals, clerics and aristocrats, who were united in their desire to free their country from Ottoman rule.
The Greek Revolution was characterized by its decentralized and guerrilla character, with groups of rebels operating independently in different parts of the country. The klephts and armatoloi, who had been fighting the Ottomans for decades, joined the revolution and played an important role in the resistance against the Ottoman forces. These guerrilla groups used guerrilla tactics to attack the Ottoman forces and destabilize their control over Greek territory.
One of the rebels' first objectives was to capture the main Ottoman cities and fortresses in Greece. In April 1821, rebels took the city of Tripoli in the Peloponnese, followed by the capture of Nafplio and other strategic cities in the region. In northern Greece, Alexandros Ypsilantis led an uprising in the region of Wallachia, aiming to join forces with Greek rebels and liberate the Greek lands under Ottoman control.
The Greek Revolution also received support from foreign powers sympathetic to the cause of Greek independence.
The July Revolution of 1830 in France
The July Revolution of 1830 in France, also known as the Revolution of 1830 or the "Three Glorious Ones", was a popular uprising that overthrew King Charles X and ended the absolute monarchy in France, marking the beginning of the constitutional monarchy. in the country. This revolutionary movement, which broke out in a context of political and social upheaval in Europe, was driven by a combination of internal and external factors and led to important changes in the political and social structure of France.
To understand the July Revolution of 1830, it is necessary to examine the historical context in which it developed. At the beginning of the 19th century, France was governed by the restored Bourbon monarchy, which had returned to power after the fall of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1815. King Louis XVIII, and later his brother Charles which granted significant powers to the monarch and limited the civil liberties and rights of citizens.
Charles However, his reign was marked by political turmoil and growing opposition to his rule, especially from liberals and Republicans who advocated the adoption of constitutional reforms and the expansion of civil rights.
One of the main points of conflict between Charles X and his opponents was the question of electoral legislation and political representation. The electoral system in France was highly biased in favor of the nobility and the conservative bourgeoisie, which limited the political participation of the majority of the population. Liberals and Republicans demanded a reform of the electoral system that would guarantee more equitable representation and universal male suffrage.
