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information, see R. A. Bjork, On the symbiosis of remembering, forgetting, and learning, in A. S. Benjamin (ed.), Successful Remembering and Successful Forgetting: A Festschrift in Honor of Robert A. Bjork (pp. 1– 22) (New York: Psychology Press, 2010).
8. The situation where information still exists in memory yet cannot be actively recalled has been emphasized as a key problem in remembering (Tulving, Cue dependent forgetting). Stored information is said to be available, whereas retrievable information is accessible. The instance we give in this chapter of an old address that a person cannot recall but could easily recognize among several possibilities is an example of the power of retrieval cues in making available memories accessible to conscious awareness. Recognition tests usually provide more powerful cues than recall tests.
9. The study of baseball players practicing hitting was reported in K. G. Hall, D. A. Domingues, & R. Cavazos, Contextual interference effects with skilled baseball players, Perceptual and Motor Skills 78 (1994), 835– 841.
10. “Reload” is the term the Bjorks use to indicate reconstruction of a concept or skill after some delay. A good, accessible source for these ideas is E. L. Bjork & R. A. Bjork, Making things hard on yourself, but in a good way: Creating desirable diffi -
culties to enhance learning, in M. A. Gernsbacher, R. W. Pew, L. M. Hough, & J. R. Pomerantz (eds.), Psychology and the real world: Essays illustrating fundamental contributions to society (pp. 56– 64) (New York: Worth, 2009).
11. The term reconsolidation has several different uses in psychology and neuroscience. The core meaning is the reviving of an original memory and then having it consolidate again (as in retrieval practice). However, the original memory can be changed by reconsolidation if new information is introduced when the original memory is revived. Reconsolidation has been studied by both neurobiologists and cognitive psychologists.
Some entry points into this literature are D. Schiller, M. H.
Monfi ls, C. M. Raio, D. C. Johnson, J. E. LeDoux, & E. A.
Phelps, Preventing the return of fear in humans using reconsolidation update mechanisms, Nature 463 (2010), 49– 53,
Notes to Pages 85–90 ê 269
and B. Finn & H. L. Roediger, Enhancing retention through reconsolidation: Negative emotional arousal following retrieval enhances later recall, Psychological Science 22 (2011), 781– 786.
12. For the research on interleaving, see M. S. Birnbaum, N. Kornell, E. L. Bjork, & R. A. Bjork, Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The roles of discrimination and retrieval, Memory & Cognition 41 (2013), 392– 402.
13. Several studies have shown that although making text more diffi cult to read by leaving out letters or using an unusual typography may slow reading, readers remember more. See M. A. McDaniel, G. O. Einstein, P. K. Dunay, & R. Cobb, Encoding diffi culty and memory: Toward a unifying theory, Journal of Memory and Language 25 (1986), 645– 656, and C.
Diemand- Yauman, D. Oppenheimer, & E. B. Vaughn, Fortune favors the bold (and the italicized): Effects of disfl uency on educational outcomes, Cognition 118 (2010), 111– 115. The study in which the outline either matched or mismatched the chapter is S. M. Mannes & W. Kintsch, Knowledge or ga ni zation and text or
ga ni za tion, Cognition and Instruction 4
(1987), 91– 115.
14. Studies showing that generation can improve retention include L. L. Jacoby, On interpreting the effects of repetition: Solving a problem versus remembering a solution, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 17 (1978), 649– 667, and N. J.
Slamecka & P. Graf, The generation effect: Delineation of a phenomenon, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 4 (1978), 592– 604. More recently, the act of generation before a learning episode has also been shown to enhance per for mance; see L. E. Richland, N. Kornell, & L. S.
Kao, The pretesting effect: Do unsuccessful retrieval attempts enhance learning? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied 15 (2009), 243– 257.
15. The cited study of write- to- learn is K. J. Gingerich, J. M. Bugg, S. R. Doe, C. A. Rowland, T. L. Richards, S. A. Tompkins, & M. A. McDaniel, Active pro cessing via write- to- learn assignments: Learning and retention benefi ts in introductory psychology, Teaching of Psychology, (in press).
Notes to Pages 90–102 ê 270
16. B. F. Skinner had many infl uential and interesting ideas about learning in schools as well as on other topics in American society. His important book Science and Human Behavior can be downloaded at no cost from the website of the B. F. Skinner Foundation. See also B. F. Skinner, Teaching machines, Science 128 (1958), 969– 977. Errorless learning does seem important in teaching memory- impaired people, but for most educational situations, errors (so long as they are corrected with feedback) do not hurt and may even aid learning. For example, see B. J.
Huelser & J. Metcalfe, Making related errors facilitates learning, but learners do not know it, Memory & Cognition 40
(2012), 514– 527.
17. The French study on schoolchildren solving anagrams appears in F. Autin & J. C. Croziet, Improving working memory effi -
ciency by reframing metacognitive interpretation of task diffi -
culty, Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 141 (2012), 610– 618. For a story on the Festival of Errors, see Lizzy Davis,
“Paris Stages ‘Festival of Errors’ to Teach French Schoolchildren How to Think,” Guardian, July 21, 2010, http:// www .guardian
.co .uk /world /2010 /jul /21 /france -paris -festival -of -errors, accessed October 22, 2013.
18. Peter Brown telephone interview of Bonnie Blodgett, March 10, 2013, St. Paul, MN. All quotes of Blodgett are from this interview.
19. The quote from the Bjorks comes from E. L. Bjork & R. A.
Bjork, Making things hard on yourself, but in a good way: Creating desirable diffi culties to enhance learning, in M. A.
Gernsbacher, R. W. Pew, L. M. Hough, and J. R. Pomerantz (eds.), Psychology and the real world: Essays illustrating fundamental contributions to society (pp. 56– 64) (New York: Worth, 2009).
5. Avoid Illusions of Knowing
1. The fi eld of metacognition— what we know about what we know and how we assess our performance— is a burgeoning one in psychology. A good general reference about metacognition is John Dunlosky and Janet Metcalfe, Metacognition
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(Los Angeles: Sage, 2009). Daniel Kahneman, Thinking Fast and Slow (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 2011), also includes a discussion of many illusions to which the mind falls prey. For an earlier discussion of many illusions, see Thomas Gilovich, How We Know What Isn’t So: The Fallibility of Human Reason in Everyday Life (New York: Free Press, 1991). For a briefer review, see H. L. Roediger, III, & A. C.
Butler, Paradoxes of remembering and knowing, in N. Kapur, A. Pascual- Leone, & V. Ramachandran (eds.), The Paradoxical Brain (pp. 151– 176) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011).
2. Peter Brown interview of David Garman, December 12, 2011, Minneapolis, MN. All quotes of Garman are from this interview.
