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Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students’ learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest 14, 4–
58. Describes techniques that research has shown to work in improving educational practice in both laboratory and fi eld (educational) settings, as well as other techniques that do not work. Provides a thorough discussion of the research literature supporting (or not) each technique.
McDaniel, M. A. (2012). Put the SPRINT in knowledge training: Training with SPacing, Retrieval, and INTerleaving. In A. F.
Healy & L. E. Bourne Jr. (eds.), Training Cognition: Optimizing Effi ciency, Durability, and Generalizability (pp. 267– 286).
New York: Psychology Press. This chapter points out that many training situations, from business to medicine to continuing education, tend to cram training into an intensive several day “course.” Evidence that spacing and interleaving would be more effective for promoting learning and retention is summarized and some ideas are provided for how to incorporate these techniques into training.
McDaniel, M. A., & Donnelly, C. M. (1996). Learning with analogy and elaborative interrogation. Journal of Educational Psychology 88, 508– 519. These experiments illustrate the use of several elaborative techniques for learning technical material, including visual imagery and self- questioning techniques. This article is more technical than the others in this list.
Richland, L. E., Linn, M. C., & Bjork, R. A. (2007). Instruction. In F. Durso, R. Nickerson, S. Dumais, S. Lewandowsky, & T. Perfect (eds.), Handbook of Applied Cognition (2nd ed., pp. 553–
583). Chichester: Wiley. Provides examples of how desirable diffi culties, including generation, might be implemented in instructional settings.
Roediger, H. L., Smith, M. A., & Putnam, A. L. (2011). Ten benefi ts of testing and their applications to educational practice. In B.
H. Ross (ed.), Psychology of Learning and Motivation. San Diego: Elsevier Academic Press. Provides a summary of the host of potential benefi ts of practicing retrieving as a learning technique.
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Tough, P. How Children Succeed: Grit, Curiosity, and the Hidden Power of Character. Boston: Houghton Miffl in Harcourt, 2012.
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Ac know ledg ments Writing this book was truly a joint enterprise. The authors collaborated over a three year period in a most productive way. Many people and organizations contributed helpful support and insights.
We acknowledge the James S. McDonnell Foundation of St. Louis, Missouri, for their grant “Applying Cognitive Psychology to Enhance Educational Practice” awarded to Henry Roediger and Mark McDaniel, with Henry Roediger as the principal investigator. This grant supported eleven researchers who collaborated for ten years on research to translate cognitive science into educational science. Many points in our book come from the research the McDonnell Foundation supported.
We thank the other nine members of our group, from whom we have learned much: Robert and Elizabeth Bjork of the University of California at Los Angeles, John Dunlosky and Katherine Rawson at Kent State University, Larry Jacoby of 289
Ac know ledg ments ê 290
Washington University, Elizabeth Marsh of Duke University, Kathleen McDermott of Washington University, Janet Metcalfe at Columbia University, and Hal Pashler at the University of California at San Diego. We particularly thank John Bruer, president of the McDonnell Foundation, and Susan Fitzpatrick, vice president, for their guidance and support, as well as the James S. McDonnell family.
We would also like to thank the Cognition and Student Learning Program of the Institute for Education Sciences (U.S.
